Architecture

Mercurial Modernism; defining the un-definable

Modernism as a genre of architecture has undergone a variety of changes in its perceptions and definitions, largely as a result of its practical and necessary longevity. It is perceived in most cases, against other styles and trends, and has gone, over the years, from being the bad boy on the block in the early decades of last century, to latterly representing the essence of conservatism. It is important that one realises this relativistic viewpoint when looking at forms of modernist architecture. However, its fundamentals have been the building blocks for the new contemporary styles against which it is judged, in as much as the elements that it gleaned from its architectural past, and in this manner, it has achieved a malleability that has ensured its continued existence.

The manner in which Modern architecture as the physical manifestation of architectural Modernism, is defined, is temporal in nature and is part of the conundrum. This is evidenced in the early work by Wagner in 1902, where ‘Modern’ Architecture is considered to emanate out of a 19th Century decorative tradition. (Wagner, 1988). This subscribes to the transitory notion of which each aspect considering itself modern, forms part. (Heynen; 1999: 12) Thus, modernism as an all embracing ‘ism’ arises; the nomenclature attempting to position it as an inclusive movement at a specific place in time, with defined parameters and goals.

The definition of the term forms the substrate to the discussion, as the parts that make up the whole are important in the understanding of the conflicts. This discourse regarding the definitions of modernism is embraced by Heynen, who notes that it is certainly not a simplistic set of ideas, and the that definition of the word itself modernised over many centuries. (Heynen; 1999: 10) She describes individually the three terms, Modernisation, Modernity, and Modernism. In this case, the first defines a socio-cultural and technological development, the second the ‘typical features of modern times and to the way that these features are experienced by the individual’ (Ibid: 10) and modernism as ‘a generic term for those theoretical and artistic ideas about modernity that enable men and women to assume control over the changes that are taking place in a world by which they too are changed.’(Ibid: 10). Thus, her description of the term is less involved with the architectural and artistic manifestations of the ideal, than the ideal itself. Importantly, Heynen sees modernity as the necessary linkage between modernisation and modernism. This has two elements; one which is based on socio-economic phenomena and one that more subjectively deals with implementations such as artistic, experiential and theoretical considerations. In juxtaposition to the etymology surrounding modernism is the notion of tradition as a necessary part of the creation of society and its bounds. However, this is an important part of the debate for, as Heynen says, ‘The desire for innovation and the rebellion against the pressure of tradition are part of the generally accepted ingredients of the modern.’ (Heynen;1999:12). Tradition then leads to the conceptual framework of the idea of ‘dwelling’ which has embedded in it a number of qualities such as connectivity with the landscape, the elements, the necessaries of living and the prescribed cultural determinants. Heynen sees that ‘dwelling’ in this regard is often conceptually absent in modernity; ‘Modernity frees people from the limitations imposed upon them by their family or clan or by their village community, offering them unheard of options and often material improvements as well; there is, however, a price to pay. The renunciation of the traditional framework of reference for their lives means a loss of certainties and of meaning. For many people it is far from easy to learn to live with this.’ (Heynen; 1999: 15). However, this is a critical comment in the context of the discussion of Modernist Architecture, as, generally speaking, the modern movement was seen to focus largely on the dwelling, whether purpose built for a client, or whether it solved problems of mass housing in an efficient and pleasant manner. (Nuttgens; 1997: 284).

Heynen accredits Siegfried Giedion as being ‘considered the ghostwriter of the modern movement…..partly due to his work that the movement was seen as a whole, because of his writings he brought its different tendencies together under the banner of the new space-time concept.’ (Heynen; 1999: 4) Indeed, in the subscript to the title of his seminal work, ‘Space, Time and Architecture’ (originally published in 1941), ‘the growth of a new tradition’, this transitory process is now expanded to include a notionally bound concept of tradition. The reaction against time imposed traditions and the seeming arrogance of the creation of a new tradition has ironically achieved its goal in the creation of an architectural ‘norm’ tradition against which ‘new’ architectures are constantly striving to supersede. The linear process that Giedion adopts in the presentation of architectural history culminating in the newly created brave new world is a mechanism for presenting the new architecture, and lumping all the new work regardless of context and from what may end up being a variety of conceptual backgrounds, into one convenient box. This is evident in the strongly conflictual relationship between Adolf Loos and Le Corbusier.

Adolf Loos has recently been reassessed in the light of some of his contemporaries, particularly Le Corbusier. This is challenged by a number of writers from a variety of different perspectives, (Risselada; 1988) and serves to open up the debate as to the constituents of that which is modern, and the level of prescription in its execution that may or may not exist. That Loos and Le Corbusier came from different standpoints is evident in the formers more humanistic and visceral approach compared with the latter’s dispassionately human free environments focussed on the production of aesthetic excellence. (Risselada; 1988: 6) This lack of conceptual synergy, however, produced an architecture that was boxed into a movement and the production of a generic in the light of, as Scully says ‘What they did not want was to be told that they were working in a style.’ (Scully; 2003: 75).

The work of Loos was more entrenched in the production of buildings relating to the human being and to culture; an early but drastic interface between Modernism and tradition. Heynen asserts that he occupied a unique and important place in the discourse and history of twentieth century architecture, in that he could not be categorised with ease. She notes that his architecture remained largely unrecognised as it was ‘fundamentally at variance with the ideals of the modern movement and was therefore incompatible with the (convenient) historiography of Giedion and Pevsner.’ (Heynen: 1999: 75) His stance on tradition remains strong, and does not sit with the absolute disdain characteristic of much of the staunch following. Loos’ notion of tradition meant ‘ensuring that culture advances on the road to and increasing distinction and perfection. This was the proper notion of tradition for an architect.’ (Ibid; 79) Modernism is not seen as a fresh start, rather ‘as a very specific continuation of the tradition’ (Ibid; 94) Loos’s thoughts on architecture declared that “Only a very small part of architecture belongs to art: the grave and the monument. Everything else, everything that serves a purpose is to be excluded from the realm of art”.(von Moos in Risselada; 1988: 24) In stark contrast, in the words of von Moos, ‘For Le Corbusier, therefore, architecture is and remains a domain of art. More concretely, Loos’ Moller House in Vienna (1928) encapsulates the notion of dwelling, is purpose designed for the client, following the lie of the land, and embracing partly those notions of domestic dwelling design that Loos declared in his Raumplan theory of spatial layout. The house, much analysed, prompted the comment from van de Beek that in the manipulation of space and material, an organisation is developed that ‘deprives the space plan of its character of necessity, its uniqueness emerging as a differentiated whole.’ However, he mentions that ‘In this differentiation of space and material, Adolf Loos was revolutionary.’ (van de Beek in Risselada: 1988: 46) Yet, despite these two different conceptual points of departure, an aesthetic similarity exists between the Moller house and the slightly earlier Planeix House, in Paris (1927) by Le Corbusier and Pierre Jeanneret, following the structural rules of the modernist declaration; flat roofed, white, boxy and rectangular, no ornamentation. One would hope that in the light of the analysis of the former, despite the break away from conventional tradition, Loos placed as much emphasis in the notion of ‘dwelling’, a spirit devoid in much architecture of the modern period.

The celebrated practitioners of Modernism are generally those belonging to the early parts of the twentieth century tradition emanating from the Bauhaus tradition, such as van der Rohe, Wright, Le Corbusier, and Gropius. Their influence was difficult to shrug, and architectural training lauded the new architectures on the back of the ancient in the same linear manner as presented by Giedion. Much of the work built prompted the comment by Scully that ‘Modern architecture is an environmentally destructive mass of junk, dominated by curtain wall corporate structures which will continue to be built so long as modern bureaucracy exists.’ (Scully; 2003: 158) Reasonably early on, a departure from the rigid and rectangular formula began in projects echoing the plastic work of Mendelsohn’s Einstein Tower (Potsdam, 1921) In the late 1950’s and the early 1960’s, controversial projects by architects such as Eero Saarinen, (TWA Terminal, JF Kennedy Airport, 1962), and the noted Sydney Opera House by Jorn Utzorn, (1973) manipulated materials in the manner of their post World War I predecessors to create new and exciting forms, blending the notions of space and function, creating contemporarily temporary spaces and leading the way for the new orders leading to the millennium. In this context, Modernism had become the conservative norm, and the new plastic buildings, pushing the boundaries of the expected and the usual. Modernism in its implementation had become a tradition in itself, and was now the starting point for a variety of other, newer, more critical and more flexible movements.

Nuttgens notes that it is understood that the age of modernism was abruptly culminated in the demolition of the award winning Pruitt Igoe Flats in St Louis (Minoru Yamasaki). Built in 1955, they were the epitome of social housing developments coming out of the age of the modernists, yet had been unsuccessful producing an unsatisfactory social environment for its inhabitants. In latter years, in addition to boasting a high crime rate, the Flats were subject to vandalism, abuse and destruction. Their demolition in 1972, and many other demolitions of such housing projects, saw the increasing tempo of a severe questioning of the tenets of modernism, and their appropriateness in social situations. The schism created by the crisis served to spawn a myriad of different types of architectural ‘isms’ including a revival in traditionalism. The manner in which these different movements grafted some elements of the Modernist era into their toolkit varies, assisting in the plethora of post 1970’s architecture that has emerged internationally and from different positions. Post-Modernism, itself a political standpoint against the Modern Movement chooses as its premise a return to classical orders to some effect. Indeed, the aforementioned TWA Terminal, together with Kahn’s Richards Medical Research building at the University of Pennsylvania are considered by Nuttgens to be the brave forerunners in the departure from the Modern era, thus prompting the work of Robert Venturi that saw the germination of Post-Modernist Classicism. (Nuttgens; 1997: 287) In addition, his book Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture (1966) heralded the discourse, articulating the need for an architecture that had meaning and interest. In another vein, the concrete structures of Le Corbusier prompted the brief New Brutalism phase, the development of the rational in the elevation of modernist buildings is strongly echoed in the post modern Public Services Building in Portland, Oregon, by Michael Graves (1982).

To revert to the original standpoint as the point of origin is necessary. This is the means of gauging the reaction against tradition, in the creation of a new tradition, which then is the point of origin for a further reaction. The continuous transition that societies make impinge themselves upon the emergent architectural traditions, as in the other arts, creating energetic discourse, yet rarely much that is new

Baroque Architecture Characteristics

Introduction

The Baroque period took the humanist Roman view of Renaissance architecture and showed it in a new rhetorical, theatrical and sculptural fashion they expressed the triumph of absolutist church and state. The main view of Baroque architecture was more concerned about color, light and shade, sculptural values and intensity which could be seen in its characteristics. Baroque is defined periods in literature as well as music; however critics perceived it to be unstructured, over ornamented, theatrical and grotesque. Although many things influenced the Baroque period it was also influenced by religion as well as the countries politics. Architects were interested in the space of the unfolding universe as well as the workings of the mind and attempted to portray passions of the soul through facial expressions.

Features

The features of the baroque era showed long, narrow naves that were replaced by a broader, or occasionally with circular forms. It displayed dramatic use of light that could be either strong light-and-shade contrast (known as chiaroscuro)effects; or they used uniform lighting by means of several windows. Another feature was opulent use of ornaments (puttos made of wood (often gilded), plaster or stucco, marble or faux finishing), they used large-scale ceiling frescoes and Baroques external façade is often characterized by a dramatic central projection, however the interior is often no more than a shell for painting and sculpture which was seen in the late Baroque period. Baroque features also include illusory effects like trompe l'oeil and the blending of painting and architecture and in other countries such as Bavaria, Czech, Polish, and Ukrainian the Baroque style contained, pear domes that were are ubiquitous.

Characteristics

The main characteristics for the Baroque era were energy, great amounts of tension and a sense of movement from the buildings. Its painting, sculpture and architecture evolved from mannerism and broke away from the rules of contemporary architecture, they demanded freedom to plan, design and decorate their buildings with what they wanted. Columns had twisted shafts which were placed in front of pilasters surrounded by cornices and covered with curved and broken pediments. They contained “over the top” and often unsuitable details with carved decoration. Interiors had gilded sculptures often in awkward poses; the architecture was noted for its curved lines. Many of Baroques additions were finished in bronze, marble, gold and silver. Baroque had a dynamic look and feel to its design; it was a useful classification for isolating the tendencies and products of stylistic change. It was seen as spacious, brilliant, theatrical, passionate, sensual, ecstatic, opulent, extravagant, versatile and virtuoso. It was an age of expansion following on an age of discovery, its expansion led to still further discovery about architectural design and decoration.

Section A: Interiors

S.Maria Della Salute (1631-1682)

The interior of S.Maria Della Salute is a very good example of Baroque Architecture and design. It displays the Baroque essence in a way but is not completely over ornamented nor does it contain any unsuitable details. Marble is mainly used in the columns and the base appears to be gilded in bronze. Sculptures are carved from marble and stand high in the round of the dome. An altar can be seen and one might assume it is also gilded in bronze. It is an artwork in a way but it is not “over the top” in any way which can be seen from this view point.

S.Pietro (1656 – 1667)

The S.Pietro is another great example of Baroque architecture and design. In this photo we can see the bronze altar that stands just in front of the apse, we can see paintings that are decorated with gold boarders, marble columns and high walls, the domes contain gold ceilings. Walls are decorated with sculptures in free standing positions in the walls also made of marble. Light is given through high standing windows and the main dome from above through a sky light.

Versailles (1660 – 1685)

The Palace of Versailles is the most well known piece of Baroque Architecture and design known to date. It defines what the baroque period was about. It was extravagant, sensual, dynamic, passionate (paintings), versatile and opulent. Decorations were not silver but pure gold. Soft fabrics, bright colours and beautiful sculptures decorated the interiors of the Palace. In the Hall of Mirrors as seen in figure 8 sculptures themselves were cast in gold high windows offered light and glass chandeliers hung from a ceiling decorated in painting and gilded gold boarders. In the Queens Chambers as seen in figure 7 one can tell that not even the bedrooms were kept simple. Gold was also used and to an extent it was overly used. The focus of ones eye is led to the gold decoration and not the architectural values of the building. The exterior as seen in figure 6 one can see that the balcony railings were gilded in gold decoration as the sun makes this easy to see. Marble is also used on the façade of the building but it is mainly decorated in gold. Rich vibrant colours can be seen throughout the palace as seen in figure 7 of the Queens Chambers.

Section B: Interior Design

Although the Baroque era contributed to the great buildings we see today, one cannot forget about the interiors. Although lavishly decorated the interiors are very well designed to accommodate certain aspects. Architects need to think like that in order to obtain a good sense of what works and what does not. I believe interior design does actually hint about it along the lines. We design what we think the client would like and then get an idea if the client likes it of not, if not we simply make a few changes to get a better feel and a better view of what they want. It is the same now as it is then. Interior designers design the space in which the client will be in every day. It requires a great deal of insight and a knowledge about a person, one might consider reading your client by talking to them, when you do that you can get better ideas. Simple designs often make better designs in these days however in the past if it was big, spacious and contained lavish decorations it was classified as good.

How Does the Red House by Phillip Webb Embody the Arts and Crafts Movement?

Summary: There was a change, due to a brotherhood of designers, in the balance of emphasis between style and method As a result of numerous discussions between the architect Philip Webb and the designer William Morris (1834-96) on a boat trip in France in 1859 the unique Red House in Bexleyheath, England was created as a residence for Morris himself. It is thought by many that the Red House is the definitive arts and crafts style house complying with the central conceptualisations originally visualised by Morris, Webb and their contemporary associates.

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How does the Red House by Philip Webb Embody the Arts and Crafts Movement"

"To create as far as possible a new philosophy, emphasising craftsmanship and materials." (William Morris)


Architecture is essentially the art and science of the construction of buildings. In 1858 a new architectural philosophy was conceived collaborated with a growing sense of freedom in all aspects of design. There was a change, due to a brotherhood of designers, in the balance of emphasis between style and method As a result of numerous discussions between the architect Philip Webb and the designer William Morris (1834-96) on a boat trip in France in 1859 the unique Red House in Bexleyheath, England was created as a residence for Morris himself. The two designers have become known, in many ways, as the pioneers of the arts and crafts movement, a period of artistic revolution, which although short lived was subtly significant in the following developments in architecture. It is generally considered that the arts and crafts movement fully emerged from1870 and was considered inactive as a form of contemporary design around 1914. Within this time the philosophy of vivacity and freedom in craftsmanship and materiality remained consistent. The movement itself is not apparently progressional in the same respect as classicism, baroque and gothic styles and revivals. It is thought by many that the Red House is the definitive arts and crafts style house complying with the central conceptualisations originally visualised by Morris, Webb and their contemporary associates. However, how far did the quotation above (Morris' stated intentions for the Red House) encapsulate the essence of arts and crafts as a movement"

Context of Architecture and surrounding ideals

It is integral to view the Red House within both a wide and local context. The gothic revival had become the preferred architecture of both country houses and public building particularly seen in English churches. The architect Augustus Pugin (1812-52) had played a large part in the popularity of gothic building in the second quarter of the 19th century. His conversion to Catholicism formed the notion that Gothic architecture was proper to Christian England dismissing the austerity and grandeur of the classical style. The Gothic element is immediately seen on the Red House in the pointed arches of the doors and windows. Webb and Morris were also aware of the architectural critic John Ruskin. He noticed on a Gothic Cathedral in 1951, "The signs of life and liberty of every workman who struck the stones." Pugin believed that the ornamentation of a building should only be expressed as essential parts of the construction not as a separate additional entity. To me, gothic arches present this ideal of greater freedom of beneficial details such as the fenestration of buildings. The work of Pugin, Ruskin and the format of a renowned church architect William Butterfield (1814-1900) was adopted by Philip Webb. Butterfield's Coalpit Heath Vicarage, Avon (1844-5) displays a vernacular style expressed by the particular use of materials; local red brick patterning, freedom and grouping of fenestration and loss of axial symmetry, characteristics of the movement, Webb created a corridor style L-shape which led to each room. A sense of favour towards the Victorian desire for comfortable domestic space and style of masonry is seen in much of Butterfield's work and is directly shown in the Red House.

Experiencing Arts and Crafts buildings

The Red House gave the style first seen in Butterfield's work a new social standing. The comfort of living within the style of building became popular with the Victorian upper middle class. Oscar Wilde proclaimed a favour to the arts and crafts movement in a series of lectures in America, " The artist is not concerned primarily with any theory of life but with life itself, with the joy and loveliness that should come daily on the eye and ear for a beautiful external world." The house was built for Morris to reflect his own socialist ideals that were shared with many of his contempories. The values of these ideals were a simplistic combination of the enjoyment of each of the senses based around the desire for a comfortable domestic lifestyle. This essence remains an integral part of the later arts and crafts buildings both in England and in America. In California, Greene and Greene's Gamble House 1908, although externally very different in style the ideal is fundamentally the same. The beautifully carved timber staircases overhang inglenook seats showing a sense of comfort, relaxation, an enjoyment of the domestic life that the upper middle class visualised in the arts and crafts style. Every nook and window in the Red House is home to a carved window seat, Morris' textiles, and a piece of personalised artwork or a beautiful display of natural material.

Materials and Craftsmanship

The Red House exhibits an aesthetic which can only be achieved with an acute appreciation of materials and craftsmanship like that of Webb and Morris. Like Ruskin Morris hated the over use of machinery and used no cast metals. This was an integral part of the arts and crafts design. The exterior shows a very characteristic style of masonry, built from the local red brick. The simple desire to use surrounding materials is also seen in the majority of arts and crafts cottages. Earnest Barnsley's Rodmarton Manor 1909 is a perfect example of traditional Cotswold stone building built by hand. Here we can see, however the primitism felt in the construction without unnecessary machinery, a development of the movement, has led to a resulting medieval feel. Many of the arts and crafts building's were accused of moving backwards in architectural development. The balance of method and style was more successful in the Red House. Webb's knowledge of building and Morris' textile's and design qualities were inseparably intertwined. The entrance and back doorway, a reflection of the gothic revival, are both inlaid archways with patterned brick trimming also reflected on the fireplaces, this natural material is balanced with the designs of Morris' interior textiles; carpets, wallpaper and curtains all encompassing the earthly tone of the natural red brick. Morris' intentions were to reflect the integrity of nature in an architectural context. Shaw Sparrow said of architecture, "There must be poetry as well as mathematics." In arts and crafts this is shown through materials.

The Interior and the Brotherhood

It becomes clear when we move from the conception into the more detailed exploration of the styles in the interior of the house that we are discovering a new genre. It is evident that it is completely detached from the formality of previous classical or gothic revival predessors. The house is a fascinating example of the collaboration of all types of art within an architectural expression. The discussion so far has centered on the visions of Morris and Webb alone and although it is fair to say that their ideals were expressed most directly in the house they were not the sole contributors to the style ultimately created. The predominant work is of Edward Burne-Jones, Faulkner (who was present as the idea first arose on the boat in France), Rosetti, Webb and Morris' wife Jane Burden who was responsible for the embroidery in the house.

This collection of oil painters, writers and designers created a personalised masterpiece which is not just a building but a reflection of an idyllic haven, an honest reflection of materials and a way of life. The German writer Hermann Muthesius wrote of the domestic lifestyle in England, "Das Englische Haus," reflecting that the Englishman at this time builds his house for himself rather than the pomposity of social standing. The simplistic unity of craftsmanship, design and materials epitomizes the arts and crafts concept. Sparrow believed the house was, "a stimulus to the imagination." The Pre-Raphaelite 'brotherhood' each had individual attributes which have combined to create different aspects of the movement. Rosetti described the house as, "more of a poem than a house." The ornamentation of the architectural construction is deeply considered to create a particular feeling. Frank Lloyd Wright reflects that this wasn't only an attribute unique to the arts and crafts movement, "Every architect is a poet... he must be an original interpreter of his time his day his age." In many ways this encapsulates a freedom present in design possibilities in Webb and Morris' time.

Morris' vision

Morris can be highlighted in particular for his part in creating the Red House style. The familiarities of his textiles have echoed through design into our own contemporary surrounding. The design of his interiors is centralised around his desire to create autonomy between the house itself and the surrounding landscape. This created a sense of romanticism for Morris as he was able to experience a lifestyle on many different levels. This is directly seen in the floral quality of the wallpaper designs and the flowers that were drawn into the architectural elevations. Muthesias describes it as, "The first house to be conceived as a whole inside and out." This ideal was seen as an innovation of the movement but was not followed by all. Baillee Scott's The Cloisters in Regents Park in London 1912-13 was designed with a quadrant front garden and small entrance archways laden in flowers which are an integral part of the success of the houses design. Although later on the Morris' ideal of natural house in a naturalistic environment was broken down. Prior created a sense of order of design which he saw as the human form of nature.

Freedom of fenestration

The aspect of design which has been most manipulated and is undeniably a characteristic of the arts and craft movement in the incredible freedom seen in the design of the fenestration. The design and number of windows articulated the new sense of expression. This is perfectly exemplified in the three circular openings at the back of the house, brightly lighting the hallway on the second floor. There is no attempt to conceal the plan of each floor and the building is expressed through a series of different designs, shapes and sizes of the windows patterned intentionally on each façade. The freedom of fenestration is matched by the L-shaped plan, both of which reflect the lifestyle of the occupant. The use of fenestration in this way is used throughout the arts and crafts movement and beyond. Home Place in Norfolk 1903-1905 shows Prior's combination of freedom of brickwork combined with the placement, size and design of the windows. Edward Hollamby writes the list of window designs of the Red house, "relieving arches to shallow segmental arches to sliding sash windows."

Conclusion

As you describe the diversity of building details whether it is the painting, materials, patterns, timber carving, furniture, doorways, garden design, embroidery you accumulate what seems to be an architectural poetry which embodies the arts and crafts movement. The arts and crafts society website describes the Red House as a combination of Eclectic gothic and English Romantic architecture and essentially this is the basis of arts and crafts design. It could be viewed that the Red House is in fact the only true arts and crafts building because of the sense of individuality in its creation which conjures a unique style of architecture. In a wider respect Oscar Wilde said, " The art we want is the art based on all invention of modern civilisation, and to suit the needs of nineteenth century life," Morris held ideals which were based on simplicity and requirement of the individual and the time, which became a realisation of following architects within the movement. It is the collaboration of craftsmanship and Morris' new artistic culture which defines the Red House undeniably to encapsulate the arts and crafts movement.

Bibliograghy

Books

Architecture in Detail: The Red House: Edward Hollamby 1991

Arts and Crafts Architecture: Davey, Peter 1980

Victorian Houses and their Details: Long, Helen 2002

European Architecture 1750-1890 Bergdoll, Barry 2000

Art and the Handicraftman: a lecture by Oscar Wilde 1882

The Arts and Crafts society website www.arts-crafts.com

The William Morris society website www.morrissociety.org

Commodity firmness and Delight An essay by Peter Hunter

Thorpness, Suffolk an exploration o

Victorian Architecture

Summary: Victorian architectural styles are used in modern residential construction of today. The irresistible charm of the Victorian house has made the Victorian era a historical symbol of elegance and class.

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Roses and ruffles! Ribbons and cherry! Mahogany and marble! Does any particular word come to mind? For anyone with architectural knowledge, the word "Victorian" should be writing itself across his or her forehead. During the reign of Britain's Queen Victoria (1837 - 1901) architecture became a fanatical beauty as the Victorian house became an expression of character, social status, and aspirations. (Sommer, 7-8.)

Gothic Revival, Italianate, French Chateau style, Second empire, Greek Revival, and Romanesque Revival all influenced the picturesque beauty of Victorian architecture. The Victorian house was built with wood, brick, and stone. The exterior was accented with shingles, stucco, ornaments of delicate spindle-work, bright contrasting colors, wrought-iron crestwork, and stained glass. (Sommer, 10-12.) Large porches called verandahs were commonly found wrapping around two to three sides of a Victorian house. The verandahs were like a large outdoor sitting room. The verandahs often had gingerbread like trim, and decorate railings of floral and lacy motifs. (Sommer, 96 - 97) Some verandahs were fully furnished with a table and chairs for dinning. (Sommer, 141). Floral gardens and walks were designed by landscape architects that, along with the verandahs, united the house with its grounds. Victorian architects were very respectful of the relationship between house and site. (Sommer, 95)


The Victorian House is made up of both formal and informal rooms. The front parlor and dinning room were generally more formal than the back parlor, kitchen, and bedrooms. The utility area, which consisted of the kitchen, basement, laundry room, and servants quarters was often grouped together in the same portion of the house, spreading over various levels with staircases separate from the main. (Sommer, 126.) The main staircase was most often located in the grand entrance foyer. Victorian foyers often had marble tiled floors, grand French doors carved and varnished with great detail, and metal crestwork that created patterns of light and shadow. (Sommer, 127.) The wide sweeping main staircases arose from the open foyer with elaborately carved railings and stair detail. Large stained glass picture windows were often located at the landings of a grand staircase. (Sommer, 135.) The Victorians believed it was proper for public rooms and bedrooms to be located on separate floors. (Zingman-Leith, Elan, 91.)

The Victorian bedroom was considered a feminine domain and private retreat. (Sommer, 136.) The typical Victorian bedroom consisted of a bed, armoire, chest, table, chairs, and commode. The beds came in sizes of full, three quarters, and half. The bed would most likely had a huge arched rosewood headboard with ruffled engraved roses at the top. The footboard was generally a smaller version of the headboard with matching engravings. Sideboards wrapped around the bed, connecting the headboard and footboard, creating a compartment for the mattress. The armoire, chest, mirrors, and drawers usually had similar arches and floral engravings to those of the bed. Closets were not common in Victorian homes because clothing was generally stored in armoires and trunks. (Zingman-Leith, Susan, 46 - 47.) Many Victorian bedrooms had Sleeping Porches. Sleeping Porches were balconies that one could sleep on to breath in fresh air all night long. (Zingman-Leith, Elan, 105) The bedrooms were usually wall to wall carpet, of light colored floral designs. The walls were most often wallpapered with stripes and floral designs. Wallpaper was generally floral in all rooms of the Victorian home. Some wallpaper was glazed with satins or silks and often divided into vertical sections. Many rooms also had borders of wallpaper at the top of the walls. The borders were generally of darker colors and often used to conceal the joining together of the wallpaper sheets. (Zingman-Leith, Susan, 37-38).

Bathrooms became more and more common in Victorian homes. The earlier bathrooms were commonly sheathed in wood with carved decorations. There were wooden cases for the toilet and the tub. Later on in the Victorian era bathrooms most commonly had hexagonal white tiled floor and walls, which made the bathroom much easier to clean. Bathtubs were claw-footed, as were the pedestal sinks. All of the bathroom pipes were left exposed, as it was believed to be cleaner that way. (Zingman-Leith, Susan, 114-116.)

Early Victorian kitchens had wooden counters with built in bins for flour, potatoes, beans, and other goods. There were also wooden cabinets lining the walls that held the dishes and glasses. These cabinets were concealed with glass doors. Open shelves for groceries also lined the walls, as did hooks for hanging utensils. Kitchens had cast-iron sinks with either faucets or pumps depending upon the water supply. All pipes and plumbing were left exposed. In the center of the kitchen a table and chairs were often placed upon an oilcloth or linen canvas. The kitchen floor was generally bare wood. Later on in the Victorian era the sink, counters, and other kitchen furniture were raised up on legs. Since underneath the furniture was then accessible, cleaning the kitchen became easier and more thorough. (Zingman-Leith, Susan, 116-117).

Victorian houses were generous with windows, decorative on the interior and exterior. The exterior windows were most often trimmed with gingerbread-like moldings. (Sommer, 96.) The interiors of the windows were highly decorative with at least five layers of upholstery. At the top of the window arrangement there were cornices of either wooden moldings or thinly pressed metal swirls. Below the cornice was a valance. The valances were most often solid colors with tassels, cords, and fringe that may have been gathered in swags. The drapes matched the material of the valance and were full and gathered in large folds. The drapes were held back by tiebacks made of metal, cord, or tassels. The drapes were most often velvet, silk, satin, or wool and matched the color of the walls. Beneath the drapes were lighter curtains of lace or net. Underneath these curtains were shades of linen, often stenciled with elaborate floral designs. Strings pulled up the shades, allowing sunlight to enter the room. (Zingman-Leith, Susan 45-46.)

The walls of Victorian houses were very decorative. Walls were most often floral wallpapered or wood paneled with intricately carved designs. Mahogany, cherry, oak, pine, and walnut were used in Victorian interiors. On the walls ornamental coat and hat racks hung. Portraits of landscapes and famous people were popular wall decorations. Large mirrors of French plate glass could be found hanging on the walls, often above mantels. The walls of Victorian houses were lined with shelving and bow front cabinets etched with glass doors display valuables and photographs. The fireplace mantels were often of many different layers, also used to display valuables. (Sommer, 126.) Mantels were most often made of white marble with semi-circular arched openings. The marble often had leaf and floral moldings at the top of the fireplace's arch. (Zingman-Leith, Susan, 35-36.)

Victorian ceilings were generally of plaster. Some ceilings were painted to mirror the floral wall to wall carpet common in many rooms. If not carpeted, floors were either tiled or pattern-carved wood. The wooden carved floors were called parquet floors. (Sommer, 127.)

Rosewood was the preferred wood of Victorian furniture because it was less expensive than the more solid mahogany. Victorian furniture was famous for S-shaped curves and claw legs. Marble-top furniture was also very popular. Lace doilies were placed beneath most objects set upon the marble. (Zingman-Leith, Susan, 33-35.) Gas lamps generally lighted Victorian homes. The most popular Victorian lamps had pear-shaped bases and lampshades decorated with tassels. (Zingman-Leith, Susan, 35.)

Flowers, tassels, pastels, pinks, moldings, and engravings combine together to make the Victorian home a Romanesque beauty. Victorians took pride in their homes, as it was believed that their houses displayed not only social status, but also the status the owners aspired for. (Sommer, 8 - 10.) Victorian architectural styles are used in modern residential construction of today. The irresistible charm of the Victorian house has made the Victorian era a historical symbol of elegance and class.

By Stacy Ann Padula 2001

Bibliography

Sommer, Robin L.: The Victorian House. Edison, NJ. Chartwell Books Inc., 1999.

Zingman-Leith, Elan: The Secret Life of Victorian Houses. Washington DC. Elliot & Clark Publishing, 1993.

Zingman-Leith, Susan: Creating Authentic Victorian Rooms. Washington DC. Elliot & Clark Publishing, 1995.

The Art and Architecture of Le�n Battista Alberti

Summary: Reviews Santa Mar�a, a book describing the art and architecture of Italian artist Leon Battista Alberti.

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La fachada de León Battista Alberti

Analizar la fachada de Santa María Novella implica interpretar la historia, la cultura y los pensamientos filosóficos en los que Alberti se encuentra inserto. Partiendo de la concepción de la arquitectura como disciplina cultural, en donde toda obra constituye un saber en sí misma, el análisis de una obra en particular requiere ciertos conocimien-tos que exceden el "marco arquitectónico."


Alberti es un humanista, y como tal, su obra abarca diferentes campos culturales. Pre-cisamente la fachada de Santa María Novella no es una mera obra de arquitectura, sino encontramos también en ella conceptos de la historia, la filosofía y la religión.

La cultura del humanismo vuelve al pasado clásico y se desarrolla a partir de cambios en la estructura sociopolítica europea. En esta nueva estructura de ciudad-estado que comienza a conformarse toma particular importancia la figura del burgués, quien re-presenta al nuevo espíritu moderno, motivado por cambios políticos, sociales y filosó-ficos. Estos cambios filosóficos se "aplican" al hombre y aparece el YO y el sujeto in-dividual comienza a diferenciarse del sujeto colectivo. Este cambio lleva a la arquitec-tura moderna a lidiar entre la respuesta que requiere el nuevo sujeto y la respuesta que se brindaba a la comunidad de intereses medievales.

La figura del burgués demuestra que cada hombre puede forjar su propio destino con su acción individual. El hombre empieza a buscar su voluntad personal, más allá de lo divino y la fortuna. La fortuna y la virtud se complementan, donde la fortuna no de-pende del hombre y hace todavía referencia a lo sagrado, y la virtud depende exclusi-vamente del hombre, de su voluntad de dominio del territorio, pensamientos, objetos, naturaleza, etc. Razón y mito se complementan, se retroalimentan mutuamente.

Los humanistas, en su vuelta a lo clásico, buscan la belleza, la verdad. El hombre obtie-ne el conocimiento a partir de la observación de la naturaleza; combinando esto con la razón. El hombre ya no se propone dominar la naturaleza, sino observarla y encontrar el saber divino que ésta proveía. Se vuelve a observar la perfección y se racionaliza esta observación con la organización matemática y geométrica de Dios y la naturaleza.

A partir del Siglo XIV se recuperan las relaciones matemáticas entre el hombre y Dios utilizadas por los griegos en la Antigüedad. La concepción vitruviana de las pro-porciones humanas fueron un elemento fundamental. Los ilustres de esta época en-contraron en estas proporciones la solución divina que estaban buscando. En el hom-bre habían encontrado las proporciones perfectas creadas por Dios, las cuales tenían que utilizar para construir los edificios sagrados. Y el circulo y el cuadrado eran las formas que hacían posible materializar la perfección de esas proporciones. Eran pro-porciones trascendentales que debían seguir en busca de la perfección deseada. Se consideraba las matemáticas la forma de llegar a la sabiduría de Dios por ser una ciencia exacta, perfecta, divina y a la geometría la herramienta que lograba la armonía necesaria. Los artistas habían logrado la consolidación y la popularización de las ma-temáticas para la interpretación de la realidad material. Se buscaba que las iglesias alcancen proporciones universalmente válidas, impactando por su pureza y sencillez geométrica, en donde se note la presencia de un orden divino dado por leyes matemá-ticas inmutables.

A partir de esta filosofía, en el Siglo XV se empiezan a abandonar conceptos que an-tes se veían como fundamentos básicos de la arquitectura. La tradicional planta de cruz latina formada por una larga nave, un transepto y un coro comienza a dejarse de lado, y se adopta la planta centralizada como tipología a utilizar.

El paso de la iglesia basilical a la de planta centralizada fue el resultado de los cam-bios filosóficos en la interpretación de Dios: la comprensión de Dios mediante los sím-bolos matemáticos del centro, círculo y esfera dieron lugar a la importancia de la plan-ta central.

Alberti habla de los templos como la forma en la que Dios se representa en la tierra. Los ve como lugar Divino, y por eso cree que la tipología de la iglesia debe basarse en la forma más perfecta posible, la más divina e imperfecta. Lo perfectamente bello, la naturaleza, prefiere las formas redondeadas; y no hay entonces ninguna forma geomé-trica que responda mejor a esta demanda de armonía y belleza que el círculo o sus formas derivadas.

A pesar de este fuerte ideal y del camino a seguir que el mismo marcó, las iglesias con planta central no son las más frecuentes. Es entonces como el concepto que no se te-nía en planta, se empieza a buscar en otros puntos importantes de las iglesias, como las cúpulas levantadas sobre círculos.

La arquitectura sagrada, además de estar basada en estas proporciones divinas que derivan del cuerpo humano y de la naturaleza, debe estar implantada en un terreno elevado, en donde pueda tener una monumentalidad creada sin construcciones alrede-dor y con una plaza, con un basamento que la separe de la vida cotidiana, por lo mismo que las ventanas deben estar a una altura en las que sólo pueda verse el cielo. Debe ser el mayor ornamento de la ciudad manteniendo pureza y sencillez.

Al momento de intervenir sobre la fachada de Santa Marìa Novella Alberti se encuen-tra con una construcción medieval. Sin embargo, decide introducir la concepción mo-derna sin necesidad de eliminar los elementos góticos. Combina en la fachada una ar-quitectura medieval con una arquitectura clásica demostrando que es posible interpre-tar la historia como concepto, pudiéndose aplicar a la misma arquitectura antigua. Con-sigue en esta combinación de arquitecturas de diferentes momentos de la historia resaltar el concepto que retoma de la arquitectura clásica: la belleza y la armonía que encontramos en la naturaleza se puede alcanzar incluso con la correcta combinación de las distintas arquitecturas, siempre que se mantengan las proporciones matemáticas y geométricas de las partes con el todo.

Existe también una fusión entre el mito y la razón en la fachada. Alberti retoma de la antigüedad clásica no solo la belleza perfecta que Vitruvio encontraba en las propor-ciones y la simetría del cuerpo humano (microcosmos), sino también la astrología her-mética del macrocosmos. Resulta interesante la lectura que diferentes autores hacen de la postura de Alberti acerca de una misma obra clásica y de los conceptos que ob-tiene de ésta: Wittkower habla de cómo Alberti toma la jerarquización y la proporción de los órdenes clásicos en el Coliseo romano mientras que Bardeschi relaciona esta misma obra romana con los conceptos herméticos de Alberti al encontrar en la arena un diámetro de 365 pies, como los días de un año.

La relación con el Cosmos que hace Bardeschi de la fachada de Santa María Novella se contrapone con la interpretación del ornamento en el texto El Método Proyectual se-gún el "De Re Aedificatoria", en donde dice que el ornamento cumple un rol secundario en la obra. Éste habla de que las proporciones son para Alberti lo principal a definir en el aspecto de una obra, quedándole sólo el simple lugar de corregir las imperfeccio-nes que dan las proporciones a la decoración. Y esto sólo remitiría al autor a repre-sentar todos los mensajes y saberes que todo arquitecto de la modernidad tenía para expresar en sus obras mediante el uso de proporciones, formas puras y relaciones geométricas de los espacios. Con el modernismo, toma fuerza la intención de repre-sentar con todas las partes de un todo, la idea que el mismo todo tenía. La idea de unidad en todo momento llevó a pensar cada detalle en la decoración de manera que no sea sólo un instrumento visualmente agradable. Tenían que expresar una idea. Y en-tonces también deben tener diferentes jerarquías según la ubicación y la intención de ser mostrados. Y era con el uso de la geometría también en el ornamento que se ase-guraba la perfecta relación del microcosmos y el macrocosmos, y transmitir así su mensaje.

Desde la antigüedad la geometría encierra un mensaje astrológico en distintas figuras geométricas, donde el círculo representa lo celestial y el cuadrado lo terrenal.

En la fachada de Santa Maria Novella, Alberti alcanza la belleza consiguiendo la pro-porción equilibrada entre las partes y en la simetría, y por otro lado también consigue representar el Cosmos en la misma fachada. Esto nos lleva a una función ambigua, o quizás oculta, del ornamento en la fachada, ya que son muchas las interpretaciones que podemos sacar desde el análisis de la fachada. Por un lado el ornamento en lugares como la fila de figuras geométricas bajo la corniza sobre el basamento lo podemos interpretar como flores, que aluden al nombre de la Iglesia en Florencia. Tomando éste y los conceptos antiguos de la significación del cuadrado y el círculo, podemos hablar de que es en referencia a que la iglesia tomaba el concepto de templo antiguo en cuanto a que era el lugar en donde se representaba la divinidad en la Tierra, dicien-do que la flor, representando a la iglesia como elemento, esta dentro del círculo, que representaba el Cosmos, dentro del cuadrado, lo terrenal.

Con esta misma interpretación podemos justificar el hecho de que la fachada se en-cierre en un cuadrado, la imagen exterior visible de la iglesia nos transmite el mismo mensaje: la iglesia es la representación del macrocosmos en el microcosmos, por lo tanto la fachada en su totalidad conforma el sistema divino, encerrado en lo terrenal.

Pero de la misma figura en la cual encontramos la primer relación, y tomando la misma Santa Maria Novella para hablar de la Iglesia Fiorentina, decimos que esa figura esta hablando de las estrellas, representación del Cosmos, lo inmutable, lo Sagrado, que esta dentro de un círculo, que es la forma perfecta que alude a la divinidad inscripto en un cuadrado, desde donde pasamos a lo que corresponde a lo humano, lo terrenal, lo Pagano, encontrando un principio de la tradición hermética de la astrología, concluyen-do que lo Sagrado esta dado en el ámbito astrológico. Y sabiendo que Alberti conocía bien estos conceptos, nos da lugar a pensar que no es sólo una interpretación errónea de elementos que se dan por casualidad.

Alberti consigue en esta fachada el equilibrio en la combinación de la razón con el mi-to, en donde la belleza está representada por la armonía y el equilibrio, es la integra-ción racional y proporcionada de todas las partes (al igual que lo encontramos en la naturaleza), también se alcanza en la alusión a lo divino, a lo celestial. La naturaleza era lo perfectamente bello porque Dios la había creado así. Si bien el humanismo in-tenta interpretar la naturaleza en forma racional, todavía el mito y la astrología tie-nen un papel importante en todos los ámbitos culturales, y por lo tanto en la arquitec-tura.

La apariencia no se puede reducir a la mera relación racional de las partes, sino tam-bién a una verdad divina oculta en esta racionalización.

Architecture of the "Food Street" in Lahore, Pakistan

Summary: A description of the poor state of architecture of "Food Street" in Lahore, Pakistan. Most of the houses are a mixture of Colonial and Hindu architecture from the early 20th cenutry.

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The alley known as the "FOOD STREET" in Lahore, Pakistan, is lined with partly defaced, multi-storey houses build in the first half of the nineteenth century.

Most of the houses are in a depleted and worn-out state. When one really observes the building closely, only then can you imagine, the state of these buildings at its prime. A private citizens committee with donations and government help has tried to restore the pre-independence architecture, but it has been a really poor effort. Since the Food Street comes to life at night, the defaced buildings and the really bad renovation work is hidden, in the darkness. The street has been cobbled and the open drains have been covered.

The architecture of the houses on Food Street is basically pre-independence, i.e. a mixture of Colonial and Hindu architecture. At the beginning of the twentieth century, Gowalmandi was inhabited by the rich Hindu merchants, who had moved out of the congested, narrow alleyed Walled City. The Hindus had a passion for building houses with fine exterior detail work that is still found there. Since the British were the ruling class - the elite tried to copy them and it is visible in the houses constructed at that time, i.e. the Anglo-Indian style. After partition, most of the inhabitants of Gowalmandi migrated to India and those who came to Pakistan were alloted houses in this vicinity. Being multi-storeyed houses, these were alloted out in different floors, thus leading to the destruction of these buildings, because of multiple ownership.

As one walks down Food Street the buildings are mostly multi-storeyed and all the ground floors have been converted into shops. These shops are like cafes, with sitting on the roadside.

In some buildings the mode of decorations dominates the architectural composition, instead of being subordinated to the structure. Most buildings on the right side have beautiful hand-carved wooden balconies with cast-iron grills in very delicate and intricate designs. The buildings on the left side have a mixture of decorative designs and symbols that underline the electicism of the architecture of the early twentieth century. The building that houses Sarder Fish Shop is the best example on the street. This building has rustic masonary and rustic columns and pillars surrounding the balconies, that makes it very eye catching.Floral engravings in cement on the fascade give a certain distinctive feature,that gives it a fantasy like effect. The doors and windows are made more prominent due to floral engravings. The top of this building has a statue of an angel on it, this being very Angloican. Balconies were a major addition during this time and they served to provide light and ventilation to the rooms at the back.

Some buildings are in a very depleted state, that the barren brick structure is visible under the whitewash. The overall view is not pleasing and clean.

Characteristics of Elizabethan Architecture

Summary: The ways homes were built for the different classes during England's Elizabethan Era. This was influenced by wars, available building materials, and the political climate.

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Elizabethan architecture was well known for its huge mansions for the wealthy, the shaped structure houses for the middle class, and the extremely small, but cozy houses for the poor. (Ross, 151) Some houses were sturdier and stronger than houses owned by the wealthy and middle class today. (Andrews, 21) The architecture of Elizabethan England started to change drastically in the late 1500s due to the end of the civil wars in the late 1400s. (Andrews, 19) The material they used also changed due to the war's end. English citizens had extremely narrow windows, and in some cases, no windows, because of the war. At the war's end, however, people were freer to make their homes as they wanted without being afraid of the consequences of the war. (Andrews, 19) In Elizabethan England, the lower class used cheap wood and their homes had a very basic structure. The high class and middle class, on the other hand, had houses that used complex structures and houses made of stone. (Andrews, 21) Also, the wealthy would try to paint almost everything in and out of their house gold to distinguish themselves from the other classes. (Andrews, 21). The New Elizabethan Architecture offered the homeowner many opportunities to express pride in his surroundings, whether he was a powerful lord, a prosperous merchant, or a common laborer with a little extra money(Andrews, 22) In Elizabethan England, how much money one had impacted the way one lived life and what kind of shelter one lived in.

The lower class had small shelters made of cheap and abundant materials. (Ross, 27) They were usually made of strong oaks, light woods, and willows. (Andrews, 20) The roofs were covered with stray, sticks, and other plants woven together (roof on top left of cover page is made of brick). (Andrews, 20) They also were introduced to bricks (for the roofs) but could not use them because they were rare and expensive. (Van Weginengen, 29) The floor featured dirt, grass, sometimes flowers, and a hearth used both for cooking and heating. (Andrews, 20) The flowers were usually seeded into the ground when a big event was approaching, signifying respect to the people coming into one's home. (Andrews, 20) The windows were usually flat and had many simple arches and columns and would often have a perpendicular style on them; this idea came from a man named Florence. (Van Wageningen, 22) Cottages were very small and cozy. The people thought it was smart to have a small cottage because it was easier to heat and cook without getting any cold wind or air in the room. This usually let them cook food faster. (Starr, 25) Even though many visitors did not like the lower class style housing, the lower class tried to use all their resources to make their houses economically valuable. The most populated class in England, the lower class did not care what other people thought. (Andrews, 20) A Spanish visitor remarked on the poor appearance of the English lower class houses, "These English have their houses made of sticks and dirt."(Andrews, 20)


The Middle Class used the structure houses to honor Elizabeth, and this structure was much more complex than the lower class housing. They also used style structure to honor Henry VIII because he was the father of Elizabeth. (Ross, 26) The materials the middle class used were mainly strong wood and sometimes stiff stone. They would also fill their roofs with clay and plaster which stopped the rain from penetrating the insides of their houses, unlike the lower class homes which had constant leaks and drips. (Andrews, 20) The middle class was also introduced to a gallery which was the longest and biggest room in the whole house. Usually pictures of family, close friends and Queen Elizabeth were hung up in these rooms. (Andrews, 20) Even though the idea of a gallery came from the middle class, the upper class elaborated on the galleries of the middle class and made them much larger.(Ross, 26) People of the middle class also demolished their big walls and small windows because the war was over and they wanted to live an easier life, not a cautious one. (Andrews 21) The middle class, or the ¡§Trend-setters¡¨, of Elizabethan England, and many people cherished and used their ideas to their own advantages. (Ross, 27) The middle class was very smart, and they knew how to use their money to create a nice shelter.

An upper class home usually consisted of the best, most rare, and most expensive material ever used. They tried to make everything from great stone and tried to paint all their walls gold. (Andrews, 19) If people needed to enter the estate they had to pass through several guards who kept trespassers and beggars away. When people entered the manor they would come into a long hall which had a medieval aura. (Andrews, 20) The upper class also had the longest galleries with a background of elaborated carvings and beautiful patterns (sometimes the houses consisted of two or more galleries to show off and be flashy). (Andrews, 21) The galleries would then lead to a stairwell which would lead downstairs. The downstairs area held private chambers and rooms for work. Upstairs people would then find the kitchen, bedrooms, living room(s), game rooms which consisted of chess and other board games, many chairs and tables, and the gallery. (Andrews, 21) The backyard, which was about thousands of feet of green grass, farms, and animals was expansive so people could play American football and sometimes hurling. (Brown, 218) The upper class was very rich, wise, and most admirable out of all three classes. (Andrews, 20) Their houses were the biggest and most beautiful.

From rich to poor, wood to stone, simple to complex, and cheap paint to gold paint, the upper, middle, and lower class¡¦ homes differed in many ways. (Andrews, 20) Many Elizabethan houses today still stand strong. (Andrews, 20) Today we have many different style houses and structures and architecture is evolving everyday. (Starr, 26) There are many differences in the architecture between the lower, middle, and upper classes of Elizabethan England.